Fig. 2

Estimated structural equation model of the relationship between maternal perceived stress and cortisol levels during pregnancy and child externalizing behavior at age 9. Note. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001. Square boxes = observed variables. Ellipses = latent variables. Standardized coefficients. Error terms represent the not explained variance of variables (1—R²) in the standardized output. Effects of cortisol and perceived stress on externalizing behavior (structural coefficients), residual variance of the latent externalizing behavior, and intercepts of all the latent variables were allowed to vary between boys and girls. Other parameters were constrained to be the same between both groups. Constrained parameters can appear different for boys vs. girls because values were standardized within groups.