From: Tourette syndrome and other neurodevelopmental disorders: a comprehensive review
Author (year) | N | Age | Methods used to evaluated comorbidities | Comorbidity prevalence rate | Main findings | Nationality |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Comings and Comings (1987) [32] | 246 | Mean, 18.2 | DSM III-based questionnaire | ADHD 48.8% ADD 11.8% Dyslexia 27% | TS patients have a significant risk for school problems and increased rate of dyslexia | USA |
Chee et al. (1994) [54] | 50 | Mean, 20.8 | Structured NS interview | ADHD 32% Depression 18% Anxiety 30% | Rate of prevalence of TS and comorbidities in an Australian TS cohort | Australia |
Abwender et al. (1996) [55] | 138 | Children | NS | LD 22% | School difficulties are associated with comorbid ADHD | USA |
Cardoso et al. (1996) [56] | 32 | Mean, 24 | DSM IV criteria | ADHD NS 63% OCD 44% Sleep disorders 53% Depression 31% Impulse control deficit 28% | Rate of prevalence of TS and comorbidities in a Brazilian TS cohort | Brazil |
Schuerholz et al. (1996) [57] | 65 | 6–14 | NS | LD 23% | LD is strongly correlated to the presence of ADHD | USA |
Yeates et al. (1996) [34] | 70 | 6–18 | WRAT-R WCST HRB HRB WISC-R | Deficit in arithmetic 14/70 (20%) Deficit in reading (14%) General academic deficit (29%) | TS children classified in different learning disability subtypes reveal significant differences in neuropsychological functioning | USA |
Wodrich et al. (1997) [58] | 33 | Children | DSM III criteria | ADHD NS 55% Depression 73% Conduct problems 18% | Prevalence and manifestations of comorbidities of TS patients in psychiatry practice are not identical to those reported in the literature | USA |
Kano et al. (1998) [59] | 64 | Mean, 17.4 | DSM III-R criteria | ADHD NS 17.2% OCD 62.5% | Rate of coprolalia in Japan is higher than the previously reported rate, and TS is often associated with developmental disorders | Japan |
Freeman et al. (2000) [36] | 3500 | NS | DSM III/IV criteria | ADHD HI 7% ADHD C 51% ADHD PI 37% PDD 4.6% OCD 22.3% Mood disorder 16.9% Anxiety disorder 16.8% ID 3.4% Anger 27.6% Sleep problem 17.8% | ADHD is associated with an earlier diagnosis of TS and a higher rate of comorbidities (with the exception of anxiety disorders) One-third of TS + ADHD cases have LD, 26% have social skill deficits, and 39% have problems controlling anger | International database (author from Canada) |
Teive et al. (2001) [33] | 44 CTD (75% TS) | 3–60 | DSM IV criteria | ADHD 38.6% OCD 59.1% Affective disorders 11% Anxiety disorder 9% LD 14% Sleep disorder 9% Behavioural disorder 7% | Rate of comorbidities in a Brazilian clinical cohort | Brazil |
Burd et al. (2005) [35] | 5450 | NS | DSM IV criteria | LD 22.7% ADHD NS 58% | In TS + LD, 80.2% patients also have ADHD and in the TS − LD group, 51.3% have ADHD; 31% of subjects with ADHD have also a diagnosis of LD | TIC international database (author from USA) |
Saccomani et al. (2005) [60] | 48 | Mean, 11.2 | DSM IV criteria | ADHD ns 43.8% OCD 54.2% Anxiety disorders 2.1% Sleep problems 27.1% Mood disorders 18.8% | Rate of comorbidities and clinical features of an Italian clinical cohort | Italy |
Termine et al. (2006) [61] | 17 | Mean, 11.4 | CBCL Conners SAFA K-SADS YGTSS | ADHD ns 11.8% ADHD ns + OCD 23.5% OCD 41.2% | TS patients have a high prevalence of ADHD and OCD compared with controls | Italy |
Janik et al. (2007) [62] | 126 | Mean, 7.6 | NS | ADHD ns 59% | Rate of comorbidities and clinical features of a Polish clinical cohort | Poland |
Roessner et al. (2007) [63] | 5060 (TIC database) | NS | DSM IV criteria | ADHD ns 61.2% | Comorbid ADHD is associated with high rates of externalising and internalising problems | International database (author from Germany) |
Robertson et al. (2008) [64] | 410 | 3–59 | DSM IV criteria NHIS | ADHD 56% (230/410) | Factor analytic study. TS can be disaggregated into more homogeneous symptom components | USA |
Ghanizadeh et al. (2009) [65] | 35 | Mean, 11.8 | CBCL K-SADS YGTSS | ASD 2.9% ADHD 68.6% | Rate of comorbidities and clinical features of an Iranian clinical cohort | Iran |
Gorman et al. (2010) [66] | 65 | Mean, 18 | CBCL K-SADS CGAS CYBOCS Vineland YGTSS | ADHD 43% LD 27% OCD 25% Conduct disorder 15% Major depressive disorder 40% | Tic and ADHD severity are associated with a poorer psychosocial outcome | USA |
Specht et al. (2011) [28] | 126 (93.7% TS) | Mean, 11.7 | ADIS-RLV CBCL CGI-S YGTSS CGAS | ADHD ns 26% Social phobia 21% Anxiety disorder 20% OCD 19% | In a sample of youth seeking treatment for a chronic tic disorder, ADHD is much lower than in clinically ascertained case series | USA |
Lebowitz et al. (2012) [29] | 158 CTD (143 TS) | 6–14.5 | Conners ASQ-P DISC IV CYBOCS MASC YGTSS CGAS | ADHD 38.6% OCD 53.8% ADHD + OCD 24.1% | TD with comorbid ADHD is associated with higher psychosocial stress and more externalising behaviours | USA |
Rizzo et al. (2014) [67] | 92 | 7–17 | Conners DSM IV/V criteria CBCL MASC CDI YQLI-RV WISC-III | ADHD 22.2% ADHD + OCD 6.5% OCD 21.5% | TS + comorbidity patients have overrepresented affective and anxiety symptoms | Italy |
Byler (2015) [30] | 482 Two evaluation | Mean, 9.8 | NS | ADHD 40% (first evaluation) + 21% (second evaluation) LD 5.4% Asperger 3% (first) + 2.1% (second) OCD 17% (first) + 14% (second evaluation) Survey: ADHD ns 41%, OCD 42%, LD 26.5% | More than 40% of TS patients continued to report ADHD or OCD as adults | USA |
Hirschtritt et al. (2015) [9] | 1374 | Mean, 19.1 | K-SADS DSM-IV structured interview | ADHD ns 54.3% OCD 66% Mood disorders 30% Disruptive behaviour 30% Anxiety 32% | ADHD began before tic onset and increased the presence of other comorbidities | USA Canada Great Britain Netherlands |
Eapen et al. (2016) [12] | 83 | N = 43 < 18 N = 40 > 18 | NHIS YGTSS HR-QoL | ADHD ns 21% LD 24% ASD 15% OCD 35% Anxiety disorder 45% Depressive disorders 33% Conduct disorder 4.8% | Presence of comorbidities and ADHD, in particular, has a greater impact on quality of life | Australia |
Huisman-van Dijk et al. (2016) [11] | 225 | 6–72 | Conners AQ SCID-I CYBOCS YGTSS | ADHD 26% ASD 20% OCD 35.9% | Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) reveal a five-factor structure | Germany |
Sambrani et al. (2016) [26] | 1032 CTD (978 TS) | N = 529 < 18 N = 503 > 18 | DSM IV criteria | ADHD 45% Hyperactivity 28.4% Inattention 39.4% OCD 10% Sleeping problems 27% Anxiety 31% Depression 23% | Comorbid ADHD reduces the patients’ ability for tic suppression | Germany |