Table 1 Characteristics of the six studies

Roy et al. [16], USA, Canada, Germany

579 children with ADHD and 258 controls

7–10 years

24.7 years

476 (82%) with ADHD and 241 (93%) controls

16 years after baseline

Questionnaire performed by participants and parents

Occupation:Job changes (total number of times fired or quit)

Earnings: Public assistance (yes/no)

Income levels (measured on a scale of 1–10)

Education:Bachelor’s degree (yes/no)

ADHD severity predicted an increased likelihood of more job changes (number of times fired or quit) and receiving public assistance

ADHD severity predicted reduced likelihood of receiving a bachelor´s degree

Owens et al. [13], USA

140 girls with ADHD and 88 controls

6–12 years

25.6 years

123 (88%) with ADHD and 85 (97%) controls

16 years after baseline

Clinic-based assessment, structured interview. Parents completed questionnaires

Occupation: Life-RIFT, Problems at work, Current employment status, hours worked per week

Earnings: Receiving public assistance, current monthly salary

Education: Highest degree, years of education

No statistically significant differences among any groups on current employment, hours worked per week, receiving public assistance or current salary

Persisters (participants who met ADHD criteria in all study waves) showed significantly more problems at work. Comparisons reported significantly better functioning at work than girls with persistent ADHD. Overall, employment outcomes among comparisons were slightly better than desisters and partials (participants who met the criteria for ADHD at baseline (W1) and at third (W3) or forth (W4) study wave), but much better than persisters

Probands had finished 2 less years schooling

Hechtman et al. [8], Canada, USA

579 individuals with ADHD and 258 controls

7–10 years

24.7 years

476 (82%) with ADHD and 241 (93%) controls

16 years after baseline

Questionnaire performed by participants and parents

Occupation: Number of jobs, average job length, number of times fired or quit

Earnings: Current income, receiving public assistance (yes/no)

Education: Bachelor´s degree (yes/no)

Significant difference in average job length, number of times fired or quit, current income and public assistance

16.0% of ADHD participants vs. 3.2% of controls received public assistance. Persisters showed the worst outcomes and the controls the best. 22.2% of persisters and 9.6% of desisters received public assistance

Majority of ADHD group (61.7%) had a high school degree or less. Majority of control (60.8%) group had completed at least some college. 8.0% of persisters had a Bachelor´s degree, 17.8% of desisters and 37.1% of controls

Klein et al. [10], USA

207 boys with ADHD and 178 controls

6–12 years

41.4 years

135 (65%) with ADHD and 136 (76%) controls

33 years after baseline

Interviews performed of trained and closely supervised doctoral level clinical psychology candidates

Occupation: Hollingshead (scaled 1–8) (jobs held, job satisfaction, work relationships, latenesses, job changes, firings), Occupational function scaled 1–6)

Earnings: Annual salary

SES: 5-point scale (high score = low SES)

Education: Years of education, highest degree

ADHD group had significantly lower occupational attainment levels, but 84% of them were holding jobs. Employed probands had an annual salary $40,000 beyond the controls

Employed probands had "average" to "good work" performance. Comparisons were significantly superior (good-very good)

Probands had 2.5 fewer years of schooling then controls. Significant fewer probands had a Bachelor´s degree (16%) vs. controls (35%)

Biederman et al. [3], USA

140 with ADHD and 120 controls

6–17 years

27.1 years

79 (56%) with ADHD and 90 (75%) controls

16 years after baseline

Structured clinical interviews performed of interviewers that had undergraduate degrees in psychology and were extensively trained

Interviewed all subjects and their mothers

Occupation: Hollingshead, Occupational rankings 1–9

Earnings: Financially dependent on their parents

SES: Hollingshead 5-point scale. High score = Low SES

Education: Educational level Hollingshead scale 1–7 , College graduate yes/no

Significantly lower occupational level in the ADHD group compared to controls

Men how had ADHD as boys were significantly more likely to be financially dependent on their parents and had lower social class. Boys with ADHD had significantly lower personal socioeconomic status vs. their family of origin socioeconomic status

They were also less likely to graduate from college

Mannuzza et al. [11], USA

103 boys with ADHD and 100 controls

6–12 years

25.5 years

91 (88%) with ADHD and 95 (95%) controls

13–19 years after baseline

Semi-structured psychiatric interviews performed of a doctor-level clinical psychologist and a psychiatric social worker

Occupation: Hollingshead Occupational rankings 1–7. Owners of small business

Education: Years of formal schooling completed, Highest degree completed, Bachelor’s degree (yes/no)

90% of both probands and controls were employed at follow-up, but probands significantly lower occupational rankings. 18% of probands and 5% of controls were owners of small businesses

Probands had significantly 2.5 fewer years of schooling then controls. Significant fewer probands had a Bachelor´s degree or higher (12%) vs. controls (49%)