Table 4 Differences in core variables between parents who used at least one-time physical violence and parents who never used violence in parenting

Sex (N = 453)

3.78 (1)

0.05

 Female

80 (29.30%)

193 (70.70%)

 Male

38 (21.11%)

142 (78.89%)

Employment (N = 441)

0.01(1)

0.94

 Employed

104 (26.13%)

294 (73.87%)

 Unemployed

11 (25.58%)

32 (74.42%)

Living in relationship with father/mother of youngest child (N = 445)

0.38(1)

0.54

 Yes

91 (25.85%)

261 (74.15%)

 No

27 (29.03%)

66 (70.97%)

Income under poverty level (N = 444)

6.19(1)

0.01**

 Yes

24 (38.10%)

39 (61.90%)

 No

89 (23.36%)

292 (76.64%)

Pre-existing somatic disorder (N = 450)

7.19(1)

0.007**

 Yes

33 (37.50%)

55 (62.50%)

 No

85 (23.48%)

277 (76.52%)

Pre-existing psychiatric disorder (N = 444)

9.36(1)

0.002**

 Yes

26 (41.27%)

37 (58.73%)

 No

88 (23.10%)

293 (76.90%)

M (SD)

M (SD)

t (df)

P

 Age (N = 453)

40.74 (8.73)

39.85 (8.45)

− 0.98 (451)

0.34

 Age of first child (N = 453)

12.43 (6.03)

11.05 (6.98)

− 2.06 (235.23)

0.04*

 Own maltreatment experience (N = 453)

0.77 (1.19)

0.40 (0.83)

3.5 (240.9)

 < 0.001***

 Depressive symptoms (N = 453)

1.08 (1.30)

0.52 (0.86)

− 4.33 (154.54)

 < 0.001 ***

 Symptoms of Anxiety (N = 453)

1.01 (1.11)

0.62 (0.93)

− 3.66 (451)

 < 0.001 ***

 Parental stress (N = 446)

43.65 (11.57)

34.20 (10.76)

− 8.02 (444)

 < 0.001 ***

 Change in parental stress during pandemic (N = 431)

− 3.05 (4.71)

− 0.09 (3.32)

6.21 (157.12)

 < 0.001 ***